Air frying is healthier than deep frying mainly because the food takes up less oil, but it is not a health food by itself and it does not reliably cut acrylamide. What you cook matters more than the appliance. This guide sets out what the studies, the FDA, the National Cancer Institute and the USDA actually say, and where the evidence runs out.

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Fat and Calories: Air Frying vs Deep Frying

Fat is the most concentrated source of calories in food. The USDA’s Food and Nutrition Information Center puts fat at 9 calories per gram, against 4 for carbohydrate and protein, so the oil a food absorbs changes its calorie count more than anything else. Source: USDA FNIC.

Studies that compare the two methods point the same way. Air frying lowers the fat a food ends up with, by amounts that depend on the food:

I did not find one percentage that holds across foods, so I would be wary of any single “70 percent less fat” figure. The French fry study also used a machine that heats the potato in hot air containing fine oil droplets, so its result is not the same as air frying with no added oil.

Does Air Frying Reduce Acrylamide?

Not reliably. Acrylamide forms from sugars and the amino acid asparagine when starchy foods are cooked at high heat, whether fried, roasted or baked. The FDA says it caused cancer in animal studies at doses far higher than those found in food, and that it is still researching whether the much lower levels in food are a risk to people. Source: FDA on acrylamide.

Two recent studies found air-fried potatoes at the high end. In a 2024 study of potato sticks, air-fried ones had 12.19 µg/kg, against 8.94 deep-fried and 7.43 oven-fried, though the differences were not statistically significant (Navruz-Varlı and Mortaş).

In a 2025 study, air-fried potatoes without enzyme pretreatment had the highest level of three methods, at 963.83 µg/kg against 785.31 for microwave frying (Esposito et al.). The numbers differ between studies because the methods do.

What lowers it is how you prepare the potato. The FDA says to cook potato products to golden yellow rather than brown, soak raw slices in water for 15 to 30 minutes first, and store raw potatoes outside the refrigerator. It does not mention air fryers.

Other Compounds That Form

Acrylamide is not the only one studied. In fried chicken, Noh et al., 2024 found 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) only in the normally battered samples, at 1.27 µg/mL when deep-fried and 0.41 when air-fried, and the air-fried chicken kept more moisture. The bean chip study above found the reverse for HMF. Neither says what those levels mean for health, so I treat the evidence as mixed and food-specific.

Air Fryer vs Oven

The USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service describes air fryers as “essentially countertop convection ovens” that cook faster and use less energy than a full-size oven. I would therefore expect similar nutrition from the same food in either, but I found no study that compares them directly. The practical advantages are speed and a smaller footprint. Source: FSIS, Air Fryers and Food Safety.

Air Fryer vs Grill

The National Cancer Institute says heterocyclic amines (HCAs) form when muscle meat is cooked at high temperatures, particularly above about 300°F, and that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) come from fat and juices dripping onto a flame or hot surface and making smoke. FSIS says air fryers cook at 350 to 400°F, so they are above the temperature NCI flags for HCAs. They have no flame, so I would expect less of the smoke route, but I found no study measuring HCAs or PAHs in air-fried meat.

NCI’s own advice is to avoid long cooking at high heat, turn meat often, and remove charred parts. It also says population studies have not established a definite link between these chemicals and cancer in people. Source: NCI fact sheet.

Reheating: Air Fryer or Microwave?

Choose by texture, not by fear. FSIS says microwaves do not make food radioactive, because microwave energy has a wavelength similar to radio and television waves. FSIS adds that an air fryer can reheat food without it going soggy. Sources: FSIS on microwave ovens and the FSIS air fryer page above.

Keeping Air-Fried Food Healthier

• Use the potato advice above. Golden, not brown; soak sliced raw potatoes; keep raw potatoes out of the fridge.
• Do not overcrowd the basket. FSIS says it blocks air circulation and can leave food undercooked, so cook large amounts in batches.
• Check the temperature, not the clock. FSIS gives 145°F for fish, 160°F for ground meat and 165°F for poultry. See my meat temperature guide.
• Skip raw stuffed breaded chicken. FSIS says not to cook raw, stuffed, breaded chicken breast products in an air fryer.
• Chill leftovers within 2 hours. Do not leave cooked food sitting in the basket.
• Watch what you add. The appliance changes the cooking, not the food; a nugget is still a nugget. If smoke or foil questions come up, see why air fryers smoke and using aluminium foil in an air fryer.

Choosing One

If health is why you want one, an air fryer is a fair replacement for a deep fryer; my air fryer vs deep fryer comparison covers the trade-offs. For the cost, see how much an air fryer costs, and for the choice against a toaster oven, air fryer vs toaster oven. Buying guides: best cheap air fryer and best air fryer for a family of 4.

How This Guide Was Put Together

This is a research-based guide built from the sources linked above; I have not cooked or measured anything myself. I read the abstracts of the six studies cited, the FDA acrylamide page, the NCI fact sheet and the two FSIS pages. Four things I could not establish: a single fat reduction that applies to every food, a direct nutrient comparison between an air fryer and an oven, any measurement of HCAs or PAHs in air-fried meat, and what the HMF levels mean for health. Several of the studies are small laboratory comparisons of one food each.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is air frying healthier than deep frying?

Usually, because the food absorbs less oil and fat has 9 calories per gram. Studies on fries, crayfish and bean chips found lower fat, by amounts that depend on the food. It is not a health food on its own.

Does air frying reduce acrylamide?

Not reliably. Two recent studies found air-fried potatoes at the high end. The FDA says to cook to golden yellow, soak raw slices for 15 to 30 minutes, and keep raw potatoes out of the fridge.

Is an air fryer healthier than an oven?

Probably similar. FSIS calls air fryers countertop convection ovens that cook faster and use less energy. I found no direct nutrient comparison between the two.

Is air frying healthier than grilling?

Unknown. NCI links HCAs to high-temperature cooking above about 300°F and PAHs to fat dripping onto flames. Air fryers run at 350 to 400°F without a flame, and I found no study measuring either in air-fried meat.

Is it safer to reheat food in an air fryer than a microwave?

Not for the reason often given. FSIS says microwaves do not make food radioactive. An air fryer can reheat without making food soggy, which is the real difference.

Does air frying make unhealthy food healthy?

No. It changes how the food is cooked, not what it is made of. A breaded, pre-fried item is the same product in the basket, and portion size still matters.

The best way to clean a toaster oven is to unplug it, let it cool completely, then wipe the inside with a damp sponge and mild soap. Put any cleaner on the sponge, not on the oven. That is what Breville’s and Cuisinart’s own manuals say, and they agree on almost everything except whether the racks and trays can go in the dishwasher. This guide sets out what each says and where I could not find an answer.

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The Method Both Makers Agree On

1. Unplug it and let it cool. Breville says to turn the oven off, pull the plug and let the oven and accessories cool completely before cleaning. Cuisinart says to always unplug it and to let it cool completely first.
2. Empty the crumb tray. Slide it out and discard the crumbs. Breville says to do this after each use; Cuisinart says never to run the oven without the tray in place, so put it back before you plug in.
3. Wipe the interior walls. Use a damp cloth or sponge with a mild soap solution or a spray cleaner. Both say to apply the cleaner to the sponge or cloth, not to the oven.
4. Wipe the outside and the glass. Breville says a glass cleaner or mild detergent on a soft damp sponge or a soft plastic scouring pad is fine for the door, and not an abrasive cleanser or metal pad. Cuisinart says abrasive cleansers will damage the finish.
5. Wash the racks and trays. Warm soapy water and a soft sponge. For baked-on grease, both say to soak first.
6. Dry everything before plugging back in. Breville says to let all surfaces dry thoroughly first.

Sources: the Breville BOV845 instruction booklet (the Smart Oven Pro) and the Cuisinart Custom Classic TOB-40 instruction booklet.

Where the Two Makers Differ

The dishwasher difference is the one to take seriously. Both statements come from the maker, but for different ovens, so use your own manual. If you do not have it, hand-washing is the choice neither maker objects to.

What Not to Do

• Do not use metal scouring pads. Both manuals warn that pieces can break off the pad and touch electrical parts, creating a risk of electric shock. Cuisinart adds no Brillo pads on the interior.
• Do not spray cleaner into the oven. Both say to put it on a sponge or cloth first. The all-purpose-cleaner spray-it-inside advice that circulates online conflicts with both.
• Do not use harsh abrasives or corrosive products inside. Cuisinart says they can damage the oven surface. Neither manual names oven cleaner, so I would treat it as off limits.
• Do not submerge the oven or its cord. Both manuals warn against putting the body, cord or plug in water.
• Do not scrape the glass with a razor blade. Neither maker mentions one, and Breville says an abrasive cleanser or metal scouring pad will scratch the surface.

Baking soda and vinegar are a popular home method, but neither manual names them. Both specify mild soap or a non-abrasive cleaner, so I would use those and check your manual before trying anything else on a coated interior.

How Often to Clean It

Neither maker gives a calendar interval. Breville lists regularly cleaning the crumb tray among its safety instructions and says to empty it after each use. Cuisinart says to clean the top interior after cooking greasy foods, once the oven has cooled, and says removing the grease keeps toasting consistent.

A monthly deep clean is a common convention, not a maker figure. Cuisinart also warns never to leave the oven unattended while it is on, and never to cover the crumb tray with foil, since that causes overheating.

Cleaning Other Ovens and Appliances

A full-size oven is a different job; my guide to cleaning a fan-assisted oven covers the fan housing and door glass, and the microwave cleaning guide covers steam cleaning. If your appliance does both jobs, see how a microwave toaster oven combo works.

If yours is past cleaning, my convection toaster oven comparison and Breville Smart Oven Pro review cover replacements.

How This Guide Was Put Together

This is a research-based guide built from two instruction booklets, linked above; I have not cleaned these ovens myself. I read Breville’s booklet for the BOV845 and Cuisinart’s for the Custom Classic TOB-40, so other models may differ. Three things I could not establish: a maker-stated cleaning interval, whether vinegar or baking soda is safe on the coated interiors, and what BLACK+DECKER, Ninja and Oster say. The maker pages disagree on dishwashers, and I have not tried to pick a winner.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the best way to clean a toaster oven?

Unplug it and let it cool, empty the crumb tray, then wipe the interior with a damp sponge and mild soap. Put any cleaner on the sponge, not the oven. Breville and Cuisinart both say so.

Can toaster oven racks and trays go in the dishwasher?

It depends on the maker. Cuisinart says the wire rack, baking pan and crumb tray of its TOB-40 are dishwasher safe. Breville does not recommend it for its BOV845 accessories. Check your manual.

Can you use oven cleaner in a toaster oven?

Neither Breville nor Cuisinart names oven cleaner. Cuisinart says never to use harsh abrasives or corrosive products inside, and Breville specifies a non-abrasive cleanser. I would avoid it.

How do you clean the glass door on a toaster oven?

Breville says to use a glass cleaner or mild detergent with a soft damp sponge or a soft plastic scouring pad, and not an abrasive cleanser or metal scouring pad, which scratch the surface.

How do you clean the heating elements?

Breville says to let the oven cool completely, then gently rub a soft damp sponge or cloth along the length of each quartz element, with no cleanser. Cuisinart’s booklet gives no element instructions.

How often should you clean a toaster oven?

Neither maker gives an interval. Breville says to empty the crumb tray after each use. Cuisinart says to clean the top interior after cooking greasy foods, once the oven has cooled.

It depends on the dishwasher. Whirlpool and GE ask for hot water at about 120°F coming in, while Bosch says its dishwashers work fine on a cold connection because they heat their own water. This guide sets out what each maker says, why temperature matters, what ENERGY STAR and the U.S. Department of Energy say about water use, and where the sources disagree.

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What Each Maker Says

The makers do not agree, so here is each source in its own words. Check your own manual first, because it overrides all of them.

Sources: Whirlpool cycle time page, Whirlpool troubleshooting page, GE support article, Bosch support page and DOE FEMP.

The Bosch page is from its Singapore site. I did not find a U.S. Bosch page that says the same, so a U.S. owner should confirm in the model’s manual.

Why Water Temperature Matters

Whirlpool says cold incoming water can leave soil on dishes and keep detergent from fully activating. Signs it lists include cloudy glasses, food residue and longer cycles. It also says the dishwasher pauses two or three times during a normal cycle to heat the water to cleaning temperature, so starting with warmer water can shorten those pauses.

Hotter is not better either. Whirlpool says water above 120°F can make some soils harder to remove, and GE caps the incoming temperature at 150°F. Some guides say anything above 160°F damages the machine, but neither maker gives that figure.

Will Cold Water Damage the Dishwasher?

None of the maker pages I read says cold water harms a dishwasher. Whirlpool says a cooler supply makes the machine heat the water itself and can lengthen the cycle, and Bosch says a cold connection is its recommendation. Some guides say longer cycles strain the machine, and I found no maker source for that.

Check What Your Tap Delivers

Both Whirlpool and GE describe the same check. Run the hot tap nearest the dishwasher, catch the water in a glass, and read it with a thermometer once the reading stops rising. Whirlpool suggests running the kitchen faucet for 30 to 60 seconds first and aims for 120°F at the tap.

If the reading is low, Whirlpool says to adjust the water heater, and notes that a long pipe run between the heater and the dishwasher can also leave the machine filling with cooler water. Running the sink tap hot before you start a cycle helps. Raising a water heater setting increases scald risk, and the DOE suggests 120°F to 125°F with a booster rather than higher.

How Much Water Does a Cycle Use?

ENERGY STAR’s limits, effective 19 July 2023, are 3.2 gallons per cycle and 240 kWh a year for standard dishwashers (eight or more place settings plus six serving pieces), and 2.0 gallons and 155 kWh for compact models. The DOE puts a less efficient dishwasher at about 5.0 gallons per cycle. At its assumed 215 cycles a year, that is roughly 688 gallons for an ENERGY STAR model against 1,075 for a less efficient one.

Other guides quote 2.7 gallons or 6 to 8 gallons per cycle; I found no source for those figures. Sources: ENERGY STAR and DOE FEMP.

Hot Water and Killing Germs

NSF says a residential dishwasher certified to NSF/ANSI 184 must achieve a 99.999 percent (5-log) reduction of bacteria and reach a 150°F final rinse, and that this is verified only when the machine runs its sanitizing cycle. Commercial dishwashers under NSF/ANSI 3 must reach 165°F or 180°F. So an ordinary cycle on a hot supply is not certified to sanitize.

If sanitizing matters to you, look for NSF/ANSI 184 certification and use the sanitizing cycle. Source: NSF.

What to Do

• Read the manual’s water section. Whirlpool and GE specify a hot supply; Bosch’s page recommends cold. Follow the one for your model.
• If your maker wants hot water, check the tap at 120°F and run the sink hot before a cycle.
• If your machine is cold-fill, there is nothing to add; it heats its own water.
• Match the detergent to the machine. See my best dishwasher detergent for septic systems guide, and can you put dish soap in a dishwasher.
• Setting up a kitchen? My kitchen essentials guide covers what else is worth having.
• Shopping for a small one? My best countertop dishwasher guide covers compact models.

How This Guide Was Put Together

This is a research-based guide built from the sources linked above; I have not tested dishwashers at different water temperatures myself. Three things I could not establish: whether current U.S. Bosch manuals say the same as the Singapore support page, how much a cold fill lengthens a cycle in minutes, and any maker figure for the temperature at which detergent stops working. The maker pages disagree on whether a hot supply is needed, and I have not tried to pick a winner.

Frequently Asked Questions

Does a dishwasher need hot water?

Whirlpool and GE ask for hot water at about 120°F. Bosch says its dishwashers work well on a cold connection because they heat their own water. Check your model’s manual.

What temperature should the water entering a dishwasher be?

Whirlpool says about 120°F. GE says at least 120°F and no more than 150°F. The DOE suggests a 120°F to 125°F water heater setting with the dishwasher’s booster on.

Can you run a dishwasher on cold water?

Bosch recommends a cold connection for its dishwashers. Whirlpool says a cooler supply makes the machine heat the water itself and can lengthen the cycle. GE specifies at least 120°F coming in.

How much water does a dishwasher use per cycle?

ENERGY STAR allows 3.2 gallons per cycle for standard models and 2.0 for compact ones. The DOE puts a less efficient model at about 5.0 gallons.

Does a dishwasher sanitize dishes?

Only a model certified to NSF/ANSI 184, running its sanitizing cycle, is verified to. NSF says it must achieve a 5-log bacteria reduction with a 150°F final rinse.

How do you check your hot water temperature?

Run the hot tap nearest the dishwasher for 30 to 60 seconds, catch the water in a glass and read it with a thermometer once it stops rising. Whirlpool aims for 120°F.